Food -
History of Jewish Cuisine
Vegetable food
As among all the Oriental peoples, and as is the case even to-day among
the fellaheen of Syria, vegetable food, and chiefly grain ("dagan"),
occupied the first place in the diet of the Israelites.
Cereals: The most important of the cereals was wheat ("ḥiṭṭah" or "ḥittim.").
(For the earliest mode of preparing this, see Baking; Bread; Cookery;
and comp. "Z. D. P. V." ix. 3.) The grains were at times reduced to
grits ("geres"); hence the prescription that "'abib ḳalui" and "geres
karmel"—probably "geres" of garden grains, which are palatable and
mature especially early—should be offered as "minḥat bikkurim." The
grain was generally ground into flour ("ḳemaḥ"), the fine flour ("solet")
being distinguished from the ordinary kind. The flour was made into
bread, either without leaven ("maẓẓah") or with it ("leḥem"; Lev. vii.
13). Barley ("se'orim") was used like wheat (comp. II Sam. xvii. 28),
being generally made into bread (comp. Judges vii. 13; II Kings iv. 42;
Ezek. iv. 9, 12). Spelt ("kussemet") was apparently used much less than
wheat or barley. It appears, however, from Ezek. iv. 9 that, besides
millet, spelt also was made into bread.
Vegetables ("yaraḳ," because raised in the "gan ha-yaraḳ" or garden;
also "'eseb"; "orah," I Kings iv. 39; or "zer'onim," Dan. i. 16):
Lentils ("'adashim") were the principal vegetable, which many considered
especially toothsome (comp. Gen. xxv. 29 et seq.) There were several
kinds of beans ("pol"); two kinds are known at present in Syria, the
Egyptian and the South-European (comp. "Z. D. P. V." ix. 4). Beans were
occasionally made into bread.
Cucumbers were manifestly also much used; even to-day the poorer
inhabitants in the large cities of the East, as Damascus and Cairo, live
largely on bread and cucumbers or melons. Cucumbers ("ḳishshu'im"; Num.
xi. 25) are generally eaten raw, and made into a salad with vinegar. The
popular watermelon ("abaṭṭiaḥ"; Num. xi. 5; to-day called "baṭṭikh")
also belongs to the cucumber species.
Num. xi. 5 mentions leeks ("ḥaẓir," which were especially esteemed in
Egypt), onions ("beẓalim"), and garlic ("shumim"), all belonging to the
Allium genus. They were generally eaten raw with bread. To-day in Syria
ripe onion-bulbs are pickled like cucumbers and eaten as a relish with
meat (comp. "Z. D. P. V." ix. 14). From Job xxx. 4 it is clear that the
poor also used orach ("malluaḥ"), the young leaves being either boiled
or eaten raw.
Fruit: There was an early fig ("bikkurah") and a late fig ("te'enim"),
the latter being generally dried and pressed into round or square cakes
("debelah"). Grapes ("'anabim," "esḥkol anabim")were eaten either fresh,
or dried as raisins ("ẓimmuḳim"); they were also pressed into cakes (I
Sam. xxv. 18). It is doubtful whether the Israelites knew grape-syrup,
though the fact that the Arabic "dibs," corresponding to the Hebrew "debash,"
is used to designate both the natural and this artificial honey or
syrup, shows that they probably knew the latter (Gen. xliii. 11; Ezek.
xxvii. 17). Olives ("zayit") were probably eaten, as to-day, both raw
and prepared. Mention may also be made of the pomegranate ("rimmon";
Deut. viii. 8; Song of Songs iv. 3); the fruit of the mulberry fig-tree
("shiḳmah") eaten by the poor, and of the date-palm ("tamar"), which is
treated like figs and grapes; and, finally, pistachio-nuts ("boṭnim"),
almonds ("sheḳedim"), and walnuts ("egoz"). The fruit of the carob (κεράτιον)
was used, while not quite ripe, for flavoring water, though it was not a
food proper. The Israelites may have known apples, although the word "tappuaḥ"
is of doubtful signification (see Apple).
Spices: The spices used by the Israelites include cumin ("kammon"), dill
("ḳeẓaḥ"), mint (ἡδνοσμόν), and mustard (σίναπι). Salt ("melaḥ"), of
course, was very important even in early times. To "eat the salt" of a
person was equivalent to eating his bread (comp. Ezra iv. 14); a
covenant of salt was inviolable (comp. Num. xviii. 19; II Chron. xiii.
5).
Animal food
In ancient times, as to-day, much less meat was eaten in the East than
among Western peoples. It was served daily only at the king's table (I
Kings v. 3), and there because sacrifices were offered every day.
Otherwise, animals were probably slaughtered only for the great
festivals ("ḥaggim"), at the yearly sacrificial feasts of families and
tribes, at family festivals (such as circumcisions and weddings), for
guests, etc. (comp. Gen. xviii. 7; II Sam. xii. 4). Furthermore, only
certain kinds of animals were permissible as food, the restrictions
dating back to very early times. For details see Dietary Laws.
Animals: The most important animals for food were cattle, sheep, and
goats, sheep ranking first (comp. I Sam. xxv. 11, 18; II Sam. xii. 4;
Amos vi. 4; Isa. liii. 7). In addition to lambs ("karim"; Amos vi. 4),
fatted calves ("meri'im") are often mentioned (Isa. i. 11; Amos v. 22; I
Kings i. 19, 25), especially those that were fatted in the stall, as
distinguished from cattle in the pasture ("'egel marbeḳ"; Amos vi. 4;
Jer. xlvi. 1; Mal. iv. 2). From early times the eating of meat was
allowed on condition that the blood of the slaughtered animal be taken
to the altar, the meat not being eaten with the blood (comp. I Sam. xiv.
33 et seq.); thus every slaughtering became in a certain sense a
sacrifice, this being changed only when the worship was centralized by
the Deuteronomic legislation. Meat was generally boiled (Ex. xxiii. 19;
Judges vi. 19; I Sam. ii. 13; Ezek. xxiv. 3, xlvi. 20), though sometimes
it was roasted, usually, perhaps, on the spit (I Sam. ii. 15; Ex. xii.
8). Game was considered as a delicacy (Gen. xxvii. 7).
Milk, Cheese, and Honey: Milk, of large as well as of small animals,
especially goat's milk, was a staple food (Deut. xxxii. 14; Prov. xxvii.
27). It was kept in skins (Judges iv. 19). "Ḥem'ah," designating cream
as well as bonnyclabber and cheese, is often mentioned (Prov. xxx. 33).
Cream is generally called "shefot" (II Sam. xvii. 29), though this
reading is uncertain. It was frequently offered as a present, carried in
cylindrical wooden vessels; and, sprinkled with sugar, it was eaten out
of little dishes with wooden spoons (comp. Riehm, "Handwörterb." pp.
1715 et seq.). Cheese made of sweet milk was probably also used ("ḥariẓe
he-ḥalab"; I Sam. xvii. 18, this passage in any case showing that "ḥalab"
designated curdled as well as ordinary milk). The proper designation for
cheese is "gebinah" (Job x. 10).
Honey ("debash") is frequently mentioned in connection with milk, and is
probably the ordinary bee's honey; that flowing of itself out of the
honeycomb ("nofet ha-ẓufim") was especially relished (Ps. xix. 11; Prov.
xvi. 24). According to Isa. vii. 15, honey seems to have been a favorite
food of children.
Fish: Little is known of fish as food (Num. xi. 15), it being mentioned
but rarely (Jer. xvi. 16; Ezek. xlvii. 10; Eccl. ix. 12). Yet there can
be no doubt that it was a favorite diet. Fish were fried, and prepared
with honeycomb. They were probably more generally eaten in post-exilic
times. The fish-market, where fish, salted or dried in the sun, were
sold, was probably near the fish-gate (compare Zeph. i. 10; Neh. iii. 3,
xii. 39; II Chron. xxxiii. 14). According to Neh. xiii. 16, fish were
imported by Syrian merchants, some fish coming from Egypt, where pickled
roe was an export article. In later times fish were salted even in
Palestine (comp. the name "Tarichea," lit. "pickling").
Hardly anything is known of the price of food in ancient times. At the
period of the composition of II Kings vii. 1, 16, the worth of one seah
of fineflour or two seahs of barley was one shekel. In Men. xiii. 8 the
price of an ox, a calf, a ram, and a lamb is given as 100, 20, 8, and 4
denarii respectively (comp. Matt. x. 29).E. G. H. W. N.
Cooking utensils
Among the ancient Hebrews cooking was naturally entrusted to the women
of the household (compare I Sam. viii. 13), as was also the task of
grinding the flour required for daily use, and that of preparing the
bread. Even ladies of rank thought it no degradation to cook, and
Princess Tamar is said to have displayed especial skill in preparing
certain articles of food (II Sam. xiii. 8). The slaughtering and the
dressing of meat were done by the men (Gen. xviii. 7; I Sam. ix. 23, ii.
14 et seq.), who also understood how to prepare food (Gen. xxv. 29; II
Kings iv. 38).
Kitchens were found only in the palaces of the wealthy, a particular
room for culinary purposes being scarcely requisite, since the primitive
hearth consisted merely of a few stones upon which the pot was placed,
and beneath which a fire was lighted on the mud floor (for oven, see
Baking). In later times mention is made of fire-basins, (kiyyor, Zech.
xii. 6), and of a species of small, portable cooking-stoves, "kirayim"
(Lev. xi. 35; in the Talmud the singular is used); the latter, according
to the Mishnah, was so constructed as to afford space for two pots.
Wood (often in the form of charcoal) and dried dung were used as fuel,
and a draft was made by means of a fan, "menafah" (Kil. xvi. 7), as in
the Orient at the present day. Fire-tongs, "melqachayim" (Isa. vi. 6)
and shovels, "ya'im" (I Kings vii. 40), also formed part of the
equipment.
In addition to the hand-mill, an indispensable adjunct of the Hebrew
kitchen, were two large earthen jugs, called "kad," one of which was for
carrying water (Gen. xxiv. 15 et seq.; I Kings xviii. 34), the other for
storing meal or corn (I Kings xvii. 12). Milk and wine were preserved in
goat-skins ("chemet", Gen. xxiv. 15, and elsewhere; "nod," Judges iv.
19, and elsewhere); oil and honey, in small earthen or metal jugs, "tzappachat"
(I Kings xvii. 12, etc.); fruits and pastry, in various kinds of
Baskets.
The "dud," "kiyyor," "qallachat", "parur", "sir", and "tzelachah" ("tzallahat")
are mentioned as vessels for cooking, but their specific uses are
unknown. The sanctuaries were amply provided with these dishes and bowls
(Num. lxxi. 3 et seq.; I Kings vii. 45, 50), which, as might be
expected, were usually of bronze, silver, or gold (Jer. lii. 19); in the
homes, however, metal vessels were found in great number only among the
wealthy. As these vessels were introduced by the Phenicians (I Kings
vii. 13 et seq.), whose artisans long continued to supply the Hebrew
market, it is safe to assume that their forms were similar to those of
the Phenician utensils. Among the common people and for daily use, it
was customary to employ earthen vessels (Lev. vi. 21), the receptacle
most frequently mentioned being the sir, a pot in which usually the
family meal was cooked, and in which occasionally the sacred meat was
prepared (II Kings iv. 38 et seq.; Ex. xvi. 3; Zech. xiv. 20, and
elsewhere). It sometimes served also as a ewer (Ps. lxix. 10). For
baking cake, etc., a tin plate ("machabat barzel", Ezek. iv. 3; Lev. ii.
5) or a deep pan ("marchešet") was used (Lev. ii. 7). Mention is also
made of three-pronged forks, which were used, not for eating with, but
for lifting the meat from the pot (I Sam. ii. 13). Knives were used for
slaughtering animals, and for dressing the meat ("ma'akelet," Gen. xxii.
6, 10).
Cookery
The preparation of the meal was in ancient times a very simple process.
The principal articles of diet were bread and milk, to which were added,
as supplementary dishes, fruits and vegetables (compare Baking and
Milk). Meat was eaten only on festivals; and many vegetables, such as
cucumbers, garlic, leek, onions, etc., were eaten raw. Lentils (Gen.
xxv. 29; II Sam. xvii. 28) or greens (II Kings iv. 38 et seq.) were
boiled in either water or oil. Fruit was often dried and compressed into
solid, cake-like masses, making raisin-cake, fig-cake, etc. (I Sam. xxv.
18, xxx. 12; II Sam. xvi. 1, etc.; compare the "ḳamr al-din," or flat
cake of compressed apricots, still popular among the Syrians); and a
kind of sirup, or Honey ("debash") was sometimes extracted from it. A
kind of porridge was made from corn by adding water, salt, and butter
("'arisah," probably the "'arsan" of the Talmud, which was a paste
prepared of crushed and malted grain); and from this many kinds of cakes
were made with oil and fruits (II Sam. xiii. 6 et seq.; Num xi. 8; Ex.
xxix. 2, etc.; see the importance of these cakes in later sacrificial
ceremonies, as mentioned, for example, in Lev. ii.).
Meat, in ancient times, was usually boiled, and was consequently thus
served at the table of Yhwh (Judges vi. 19; I Sam. ii. 15). The sauce in
which it was cooked was also relished ("maraḳ," Judges vi. 19; perhaps
also "merḳaḥah," Ezek. xxiv. 10). That the custom of boiling a young
lamb or a kid in milk—still prevalent among the Arabs—existed among the
ancient Hebrews, is proved by the prohibition of the custom in Ex.
xxiii. 19. The word , which may also signify "roasting," is usually
applied to cooking in the sense of "boiling." It is reported of the
wicked sons of Eli that they preferred roasted to boiled meat (I Sam.
ii. 15). The meat of the Passover lamb was usually roasted; and indeed
the custom of roasting ("ẓalah") became ever more prevalent. As among
all the nations of antiquity, it was effected at the open fire, either
by placing the meat directly upon the coals (compare the roasting of the
fish mentioned in John xxi. 9), or by using a spit or grate, which
appurtenances, though not specifically mentioned in the Old Testament,
may reasonably be supposed to have been employed. Even in Genesis
(xxvii. 6 et seq.) it is stated that Rebekah could prepare the flesh of
a kid so that it tasted like venison; and from this statement a certain
degree of culinary skill may be inferred. The progress of civilization,
bringing about increased importation of provisions, materially
contributed to the refinement of the culinary art among the Hebrews
(compare Food).
In Talmudical times
Merely a few of the many data in the Talmud that throw a clear light on
the private life of the Jews can be mentioned here. Bread was the
principal food; and as in the Bible the meal is designated by the simple
term "to eat bread," so the rabbinical law ordains that the blessing
pronounced upon bread covers everything else except wine and dessert.
Bread was made not only from wheat, but also from rice, millet, and
lentils ('Er. 81a). Bread with milk was greatly relished. The
inhabitants of Maḥuza in Babylon ate warm bread every day (compare Shab.
109a). Morning bread that was eaten with salt is mentioned (B. M. 107b;
compare Ab. vi. 4). Wheat bread makes a clear head, ready for study (Hor.
13b). The same result is obtained, according to another reading, from
bread baked over coals (ib.). Breadbakers are often mentioned, rabbis
also following that trade.
Meat
Meat was eaten only on special occasions, on Sabbaths and at feasts. The
pious kept fine cattle for the Sabbath (Beẓah 16a); but various other
kinds of dishes, relishes, and spices were also on the table (Shab.
119a). A three-year-old calf with its kidneys was considered excellent (ib.
119b). Nor were the tongues of animals despised (Yalḳ. Makiri to Prov.
xviii. 21). Deer, also, furnished meat (Bek. iv. 29b; Ḥul. 59a), as did
pheasants (Tosef., Kil. i. 8), chickens (Shab. 145b), and pigeons (Pes.
119b). Fish was eaten on Friday evening in honor of the Sabbath (compare
Grünbaum, "Gesammelte Aufsätze zur Sprachund Sagenkunde," p. 232);
sometimes it was prepared in milk (Ḥul. 111b). Pickled fish was an
important article of commerce, being called "garum" among the Jews, as
among the Greeks and Romans. Pliny ("Hist. Naturalis," xxxi. 95) says
expressly of a "garum castimoniale" (i.e., kasher garum) that it was
prepared according to Jewish law. Locusts were eaten, though without
blessing, as they signified a curse. Eggs were so commonly eaten that
the quantity of an egg was used halakicly as a measure. The egg was
broken (Ṭ. Y. iii. 2) and occasionally dipped in wine (Ḥul. 6a). The
unsalted yolk of an egg eaten on ten successive days causes death ("Alphabeta
di-Ben Sira," ed. Steinschneider, p. 22b). A regular meal consisted of
chicken stuffed with meal, fine bread, fat meat, and old wine (ib. 17b).
The Talmudic axiom, "Without meat there is no pleasure; hence meat is
indispensable on feastdays," is well known.
Dinners
As regards other dishes, the Jews were acquainted with most of those
known in antiquity. The first dish was an entrée—something pickled, to
stimulate the appetite (Ber. vi. 7); this was followed by the meal
proper, which was ended with a dessert, called in Greek θάργημα.
Afiḳomen is used in the same sense. Titbits ("parperet") were eaten
before as well as after the meal (Ber. vi. 6). Wine was an important
item. It was flavored with myrrh (compare Mark xv. 23) or with honey and
pepper, the mixture being called "conditum." There were vinegar wine ('Ab.
Zarah 30a), wine from Amanus, and Cilicia (Tosef., Sheb. v. 223), red
wine from Saron, Ethiopian wine (B. Ḳ. 97b), and black wine (Abba Gorion
i. 9). Wine in ice came from Lebanon. Certain wines are good for the
stomach; others are not (Yer. Sheḳ. 48d; see Wine). There was Median
beer as well as a beer from Egypt called "zythos" (Pes. iii. 1), and
beer made from a thorn (Spina regia; Löw, "Aramäische Pflanzennamen," p.
231; Ket. 77b). To eat without drinking means suicide (Shab. 41a).
Fruits and vegetables
Fruit was always relished, and many kinds, Biblical as well as
non-Biblical, are often mentioned. A certain kind of hard nut even the
wealthy could not procure (Pesiḳ. 59b). The custom of eating apples on
the Feast of Weeks (Targ. Sheni to Esth. iii. 8) belongs to those minute
observances that are so numerous in Jewish life. In the same way fruit
and herbs were eaten on New-Year's eve as a good omen (Hor. 12a).
Children received especially on the evening of Passover nuts and roasted
ears of corn (B. M. iv. 12; Pes. 119b). Olives were so common that they
were used as a measure ("zayit"). "While olives produce forgetfulness of
what one has learned, olive-oil makes a clear head" (Hor. 13b). "Bread
for young men, oil for old people, and honey for children" (Yoma 75b).
Herbs occupied a chief place on the evening of Passover, and they were
also a favorite dish on the Sabbath (Ta'an. 20b), being eaten either dry
or soaked (Tosef., Sheb. iv. 6). Many vegetables were included in the
comprehensive name "ḳiṭniyyot" (Beẓah 12b; compare 'Uḳ. i. 5),
especially beans. Other vegetables were cucumbers, melons, cabbages,
turnips, lettuces, radishes, onions, and garlic. The smell of garlic,
frequently mentioned in later times in association with the Jews, is
referred to in the Talmud (Sanh. 11a).
Talmudic as well as Biblical times give evidence of a healthy, happy
view of life. Sweets eaten during meals are frequently mentioned (B. M.
vii. 1; Esth. R. i. 9). There is a saying of Rab (Abba Arika) that a
time will come when one will have to render an account for all that one
has seen and not eaten (Yer. Ḳid. 66d). It is said, however, of Abba
Arika that, after having had all the precious things of life, he finally
ate earth. Eliezer b. Hyrcanus is also reported to have eaten earth
(compare the "geophagi" [earth-eaters] of the ancient authors). There is
hardly any difference in food between Palestine and Babylon; only some
details referring to the ritual are mentioned (Müller, "Ḥilluf Minhagim,"
Nos. 19, 67).
In the Middle Ages
The Jews were so widely scattered in the Middle Ages that it is
difficult to give a connected account of their mode of living as regards
food. In Arabic countries the author of the Halakot Gedolot knew some
dishes that appear to have been peculiar to the Jews, e.g., "paspag" (p.
60, ed. Hildesheimer), which was, perhaps, biscuit; according to the
Siddur Amram (i. 38), the well-known "ḥaroset" is made in those
countries from a mixture of herbs, flour, and honey (Arabic,"ḥalikah").
Maimonides, in his "Sefer Refu'ot" (ed. Goldberg, London, 1900),
mentions dishes that are good for health. He recommends bread baked from
wheat that is not too new, nor too old, nor too fine (p. 8); further,
the meat of the kid, sheep, and chicken, and the yolks of eggs. Goats'
and cows' milk is good, nor are cheese and butter harmful. Honey is good
for old people; fish with white, hard meat is wholesome; so also are
wine and dried fruits. Fresh fruits, however, are unwholesome; and he
does not recommend garlic or onions (p. 9).
There is detailed information about Italian cookery in the amusing
little book "Masseket Purim." It discusses (according to Abrahams,
"Jewish Life in the Middle Ages," p. 151) pies, chestnuts, turtledoves,
pancakes, small tarts, gingerbread, ragouts, venison, roast goose,
chicken, stuffed pigeons, ducks, pheasants, partridges, quails,
macaroons, and salad. These are dishes of luxurious living. The
oppressed medieval Jews fared poorly rather than sumptuously, indulging
in joyous feasts only on Sabbaths, festivals, circumcisions, and
weddings. For example, the Jews of Rhodes, according to a letter of
Obadiah Bertinoro, 1488, lived on herbs and vegetables only, never
tasting meat or wine ("Jahrb. für die Gesch. der Juden," iii. 201). In
Egypt, however, meat, fish, and cheese were procurable (ib. 208); in
Gaza, grapes, fruit, and wine (ib. 211). Cold dishes are still relished
in the East. Generally, only one dish was eaten, with fresh bread daily
(Jacob Safir, in "Eben Sappir," p. 58a, Lyck, 1866).
Some characteristically Jewish dishes are frequently mentioned in the
Judæo-German dialect: from the twelfth century onward, "brätzel" (Glassberg,
"Zikron Berit," p. 122, Berlin, 1892); "lokshen" (Abrahams, l.c. p.
152); "pasteten" (ib. p. 151; compare Yoreh De'ah, Bet Yosef, § 97); "fladen"
(Yoreh De'ah, ib.); "beleg" (i.e., goose sandwich), still used (Yoreh
De'ah, Ṭure Zahab, § 101, 11). The favorite "barscht" or "borshtsh" soup
is a Polish dish (ib. § 96); best known are the "berkes" or "barches"
eaten on the Sabbath (Grünbaum, l.c. p. 229), and "shalet" (Abrahams,
l.c. p. 151), which Heine commemorates ("Werke," i. 436), and which the
Spanish Jews called Ani. The Sabbath pudding ("kigl" or "kugel" in
Yiddish) is also well known. For more detailed information on several of
these dishes see Cookery.
References
* Bibliography: Krauss, Lehnwörter, ii. 640, s.v. Mahlzeiten, Speisen,
and Getränke;
* Wiener, Die Jüdischen Speisegesetze, Breslau, 1895. For the Middle
Ages: Güdemann, Gesch. des *Erziehungswesens . . . bei den Juden, iii.
112, and passim;
* Berliner, Aus dem Inneren Leben der Juden in Deutschland, v., vi.;
* Abrahams, Jewish Life in the Middle Ages, ch. viii., London, 1896;
* several documents of Prague regulating the high living of the Jews in
the eighteenth century are given in Neuzeit, 1891, No. 47, p. 481
Back to Food |
|
