Kosher
- Kosher Foods
Meat
Modern halakha (Jewish law) on kashrut classifies the flesh of both
mammals and birds as "meat"; fish are considered to be parve (Hebrew:
פרווה), neither meat nor dairy.
Mammals: Leviticus 11:3–11:8
The dietary laws are given in Leviticus 11. The Hebrew name for god used
is the Tetragrammaton (YHWH, also rendered as Yahweh or Jehovah): "And
the LORD spoke to Moses and to Aaron, saying: "speak to the children of
Israel, saying, 'These are the living things which you may eat among all
the animals that are on the earth.'" (Leviticus 11:1–11:2).
Leviticus 11:3 sets down that Jews may eat all animals (some translation
use "beasts") that have cloven hooves and chew their cud, and Leviticus
11:4 explicitly prohibited the consumption of animals that do not have
these characteristics, designating them "unclean to you." Three mammals
are specifically prohibited:
* The rabbit (cited in some older texts as the "coney" or
"rock-badger"), because it chews its cud but does not have cloven hooves
(Leviticus 11:5);
* The hare, because it chews its cud but does not have cloven hooves
(Leviticus 11:6);
* The pig, because it has cloven hooves but does not chew its cud
(Leviticus 11:7);
All kosher mammals, therefore, are even-toed ungulates and herbivores in
the suborder Ruminantia, including several common domesticated animals
and many wild animals. Kosher animals include the following:
* Bovines (family Bovidae) (cattle (cows), goats, sheep, and antelope)
* Musk deer (family Moschidae)
* Deer (family Cervidae)
* Giraffes and okapis (family Giraffidae)
* Pronghorns (family Antilocapridae)
Leviticus 11:8 commands the Jews that "of their flesh you shall not eat,
and of their carcass you shall not touch." The following verse,
Leviticus 11:9, goes on to address seafood.
Seafood: 11:9-
In Leviticus 11:9, seafood ("all that are in the waters") is addressed.
As for mammals, two criterions are given: whatever "in the waters, in
the seas, and in the rivers" and has "fins and scales" may be eaten. The
following verse, Leviticus 11:10, says that "all that move in the
waters" and "have not fins and scales" are "an abomination," and
Leviticus 11:11 commands the Israelites to "of their flesh not eat" and
"of their carcasses you shall hold abomination."
Examples of unkosher water creatures include shark, catfish, octopus,
squid, jellyfish, and eels. All shellfish, such as clams, oysters, crab,
lobster, and shrimp are not kosher. All sea mammals, such as dolphins,
whales, and seals are also not kosher.
Seaweed and other sea plant life are kosher, although many of these
plants are often infested with non-kosher animals. Thus, nori is
generally agreed upon as requiring a hechsher, to avoid the problem of
eating seahorses. There are, however, some authorities who allow for
checking each piece of unsupervised nori with a light box, but in
practice, this is time consuming and often yields very few suitable
pieces.
The kashrut of swordfish and sturgeon are controversial, as they have
scales as young fish, but lose them later in life. Orthodox authorities
have ruled that these fish are not kosher, but many Conservative rabbis
rule that they are kosher.
Fish is not considered to be meat, but rather neutral or 'pareve';
however, the laws of kashrut require fish and meat to be consumed
separately. Unlike the separation between milk and meat, a separate set
of dishes is not required, but dishes must be washed in between. Thus at
a Sabbath meal, where traditionally there is a fish course and a meat
course, there will always be a separate fish fork and fish plate, to
avoid having the inconvenience of rinsing mid-meal. The Beth Yosef also
forbids eating fish with dairy products; though most authorities
attribute this to a printing error, some (particularly Sephardi Jews
from Syria) follow this ruling.
Birds
Kosher birds include: duck (domestic), goose (domestic), chicken, capon
(castrated rooster), turkey, guinea fowl and many others. As a general
principle, scavenging birds such as vultures and birds of prey such as
hawks and eagles (which will eat carrion when they find it) are not
considered kosher, while other birds generally are. Leviticus outlines
the non-kosher birds and the rest are all kosher; in practice, however,
the identities of the birds listed as non-kosher are not all known, so
religious authorities have restricted consumption to specific birds
which Jews have traditionally eaten. Thus birds such as songbirds, which
are consumed as delicacies in many societies, are not generally eaten
although they might theoretically be Kosher.
Kosher slaughter and preparation
Jewish law states that kosher mammals and birds must be slaughtered
according to a strict set of guidelines, the slaughter (shechita) (שחיטה)
being designed to minimize the pain inflicted. This necessarily
eliminates the practice of hunting wild game for food, unless it can be
captured alive and ritually slaughtered.
A professional slaughterer, or shochet (שוחט), using a large razor-sharp
knife with absolutely no irregularities, nicks or dents, makes a single
cut across the throat to a precise depth, severing both carotid
arteries, both jugular veins, both Vagus nerves, the trachea and the
esophagus, no higher than the epiglottis and no lower than where cilia
begin inside the trachea, causing instantaneous loss of blood flow to
the brain and death in a few seconds. Any variation from this exact
procedure could cause unnecessary suffering; therefore, if the knife
catches even for a split second or is found afterward to have developed
any irregularities, or the depth of cut is too deep or shallow, the
carcass is not kosher (nevelah) and is sold as regular meat to the
general public. The shochet must be not only rigorously trained in this
procedure, but also a pious Jew of good character who observes the
Sabbath, and who remains cognizant that these are God's creatures who
are sacrificing their lives for the good of himself and his community
and should not be allowed to suffer. In smaller communities, the shochet
is often the town rabbi or the rabbi of one of the local synagogues;
large factories which produce Kosher meat have professional full time
shochets on staff.
Once killed, the animal is opened to determine whether there are any of
seventy different irregularities or growths on its internal organs,
which would render the animal non-kosher. The term "Glatt" kosher,
although it is often used colloquially to mean "strictly kosher",
properly refers to meat where the glatt (גלת) (lungs) are carefully
examined for adhesions (i.e. scars from previous inflammation).
Large blood vessels must be removed, and all blood must be removed from
the meat, as Jewish law prohibits the consumption of the blood of any
animal. This is most commonly done by soaking and salting, but also can
be done by broiling. An interesting fact, little-known outside of Jewish
communities, is that the hindquarters of a mammal are not kosher unless
the sciatic nerve and the fat surrounding it are removed (Genesis
32:33). This is a very time-consuming process demanding a great deal of
special training, and is rarely done outside Israel, where there is a
greater demand for kosher meat, since all meat sold in Jewish towns is
required to be kosher by law. When it is not done, the hindquarters of
the animal are sold for non-kosher meat.
Gelatin
A controversial topic is the status of gelatin. True gelatin consists of
denatured proteins, and usually comes from the processed hides or bones
of animals. If the source of gelatin is a kosher animal that was
properly slaughtered according to Jewish law, or a kosher fish, then
such gelatin is considered kosher by all Jews.
Another issue with gelatin is whether it is pareve ('neutral'). Kosher
gelatin made from kosher fish is pareve. A kosher pareve 'gelatin' made
from vegetable gums such as carrageenan combined with food starch from
tapioca (which is also suitable for vegans) is commercially available in
supermarkets which have substantial Kosher food sections. It does behave
differently than protein-based gelatin, however, and cannot always be
substituted directly for animal gelatin without modification of the
recipe. Other gelatin-like materials available include combinations of
carrageenan and other vegetable gums, such as guar gum, locust-bean gum,
xanthan gum, gum acacia, and agar, chemically modified food starch, and
chemically modified pectins. Recently, such products have come to be
used in prepackaged gelled fruit products, where animal-based gelatin
was previously used.
All other gelatin is usually considered treif (non-kosher). However, a
few prominent rabbinic authorities have noted that gelatin undergoes
such extensive processing and chemical changes that it no longer has the
status of meat, and as such may be considered pareve and kosher.
Virtually no American Kashrut authorities, nor any Israeli Mehadrin
(strict) authorities accept this leniency. However, most Conservative
Jews, and a significant minority of Israeli Orthodox Jews, accept that
all gelatin is kosher.
This also affects the status of marshmallows, which contain gelatin as
one of their principal ingredients.
Insects and other invertebrates, reptiles, and amphibians
With four exceptions, all insects and other invertebrates (including
those usually consumed as seafood), all reptiles, and all amphibians are
considered 'loathsome', 'crawling' creatures, and are forbidden as treif
(un-kosher). The exceptions are a type of locust native to the Arabian
peninsula, encompassing four distinct species. The tradition for
identifying which species of locust were and were not kosher has been
lost among all Jews except the Jews of Yemen. (One hypothesis links
these kosher insects to the Biblical manna which was provided as food
for the Israelites in the desert).
Bee honey is Kosher, even though bees are not, because the honey is made
by the bee, not a secretion of the bee.
In the summer of 2004, a controversy arose in New York City over the
presence of copepods (tiny crustaceans) in the city water supply. While
some authorities hold that these creatures are microscopic and therefore
negligible, others note that they are almost the size of a small insect,
such as a gnat, and far larger than a bacterium or other single-celled
creature; and in fact can be detected by the naked eye. As of this
writing a definitive ruling has not been produced as to whether copepods
are kosher, but many families have begun using filters on their drinking
and cooking water supply.
Dairy
Milk and milk-derived products derived from kosher animals are always
kosher. All milk from cows, goats, and sheep is kosher. In the past,
when milk from cows was more expensive, adulteration with camel milk or
horse milk was a serious issue; today this is not considered a practical
concern in the USA or in most western countries. As such, most Modern
Orthodox rabbis and all Conservative rabbis hold that FDA supervision is
sufficient for milk and dairy products to be considered automatically
kosher. However, where it is available, many Orthodox Jews feel it is
incumbent upon them to eliminate all doubt by using only "Cholov Yisroel"
(חלב ישראל) milk and dairy products; this label means that the milk has
been under constant rabbinical supervision from milking to bottling, to
make sure that it is not admixed with the milk of a non-kosher animal.
Cheese
Cheese is, of course, considered a dairy product. Hard cheeses, however,
are made from milk and rennet, an animal product, and the kashrut of
such cheeses is a matter of debate in the religious Jewish community.
Rennet is the enzyme used to turn milk into curds and whey; most forms
of rennet derive from the lining of the stomach of an animal. Kosher
rennet may be made from the stomachs of kosher animals slaughtered in
conformance with the laws of kashrut, or may be made from vegetable or
microbial sources. The Mishna and Talmud (in Avodah Zarah and Hullin)
state that cheese made with rennet derived from a non-kosher animal is
non-kosher. Orthodox authorities follow this ruling, and hold that
rennet is a "d'var ha'ma'amid" (דבר המעמיד), something that changes the
status of the food so much that any amount makes the food it is added to
non-kosher. Conservative authorities classify rennet as something that
has changed so much from its original form that it is a "d'var chadash"
(דבר חדש), "something new", and thus is no longer un-kosher. In practice
Orthodox and some Conservative Jews eat only cheese made with kosher
rennet, while other Conservative Jews follow the Conservative ruling and
eat any hard cheese.
No mixing of meat and dairy
Milk products and meat products may not be eaten together in the same
meal, much less cooked together. Jewish law thus mandates a set of
'fence' laws that prevent this from happening; cooking meat and milk
together is prohibited, even if it is not eaten, eating milk and meat
together is prohibited even if they are not cooked together, and no
benefit can be attained from such activity; for instance, one cannot
even serve meat and milk together to an animal. Note that in most
current forms of Judaism (but not among all Karaites, Ethiopian Jews and
some Persian Jewish communities), this even applies to the flesh of
birds, not just mammals. Most observant Jewish homes maintain two sets
of silverware, cookware, cups, and dishes. One is for milk (Yiddish
milchig, Hebrew halavi) dishes, and one is for meat (Yiddish fleishig or
fleishedik, Hebrew basari) dishes. This prevents any trace of meat or
dairy from being accidentally mixed. (Foods that contain neither milk
nor meat are considered "neutral" -- Yiddish pareve, modern Hebrew parve.)
Jewish law considers glass (and some say Pyrex) to be non-absorbent;
thus, one could use just a single set of glass plates and dishes. In
practice, this is rarely done amongst Ashkenazi Jews not only because of
the cost, but also because it is held that it would weaken the
traditional system of kashrut observance. However, it is common within
most religiously observant households to allow drinking glasses to be
used for both dairy and meat meals, as long as they are thoroughly
washed. Amongst Sephardim, glass dishes are often used for both milk and
meat — including for hot food.
Most views hold that there is no wait needed to have meat soon after
eating dairy, so long as the mouth is thoroughly cleaned. However, three
distinct customs are observed regarding how long it is necessary to wait
after eating meat before eating dairy foods again; most Litvak
communities wait six hours, but many Galitzianers and German Jews wait
only one to three hours, and Dutch Jews only 55 minutes.
Pareve
All foods which do not fall into the categories of meat or dairy are
considered pareve, and can be consumed freely with either meat or dairy.
This includes all fruits and vegetables and foods derived exclusively
from such sources; salt and other non-organic foodstuffs. Fish is
considered pareve, and may be eaten directly before or after both meat
and milk, but see Fish and Seafood below.
Produce
Various laws apply to fruits, vegetables and produce. Most of these only
apply to the produce of the Land of Israel:
* Orlah - fruits, harvested from a tree, less than three years after its
planting (Mishnah tractate Orlah 3:9, Shulchan Arukh Yoreh De'ah
294:9-10)
* Various tithes (Shulchan Aruch ibid ch. 391-393):
o Terumah - originally given to the Kohen (priestly caste)
o Ma'aser Rishon - originally given to the Levites
o Ma'aser Sheni - orinigally consumed in Jerusalem or given to the poor
(in specific years)
* Shemitta - produce from each seventh year (Mishna tractate Shevi'it
and Maimonides Hilchot Shevi'it ve-Yovel)
* Challah - bread that needs to have a priestly gift removed (Mishna
tractate Challah, Shulchan Aruch ibid 322-330)
Grains and cereals
Unprocessed grains and cereals are kosher. Processed items (e.g. dry
cereals, baked goods) may contain small quantities of non-kosher
ingredients; therefore Orthodox Judaism holds that these goods should
generally not be consumed unless there is a hechsher (mark of rabbinical
certification of kashrut) on the product. Conservative Judaism often is
more lenient, and holds that a careful reading of the ingredients is
sufficient.
Kosher for Passover
During the 8 days of Passover there are additional restrictions on what
foods may be eaten. Jewish law forbids Jews from eating any leavened
product, and furthermore any product made from the so-called five
species — conventionally viewed to be wheat, rye, barley, spelt, or oats
(other than matzo, bread which has been ritually supervised from harvest
to packaging to ensure that no leavening has occurred), which may have
been inadvertently briefly moistened sometime after harvest, and begun
the fermentation process which is key to leavening. Note that the
inclusion of oats amongst the five species (Rashi) is contested; the
Yerushalmi and Rambam have what we know as two-rowed barley. Rye is also
contested, but is more closely related in appearance, properties and
genetic affiliation. Ashkenazic Jews are restricted from eating rice and
legumes during Passover, while Sephardic Jews are permitted rice and
typically legumes as well. In order to prevent inadvertent consumption
of hametz (chometz), foods which are not Kosher for Passover, observant
Jews maintain an entirely separate set of dishes, cutlery, pots, pans,
etc. for Passover which can never be allowed to contact such foods, much
as they maintain separate sets of such items for milk and for meat.
Before Passover, the house is rigorously cleaned to eliminate any
remnants of hometz, no matter how small. Many Jews who can afford it
even maintain a separate kitchen for use during Passover, to eliminate
the need for such a laborious procedure in their regular kitchen, with
the risk of overlooking some nook or cranny somewhere where a crumb has
lodged.
Other produce
All fresh fruits and vegetables are kosher in principle. Jewish law
requires that they be carefully checked and cleaned to make sure that
there are no insects on them, as insects are not kosher (except certain
Orthoptera, see above). In the last century emphasis on this aspect has
increased, especially in the Haredi Jewish community. Many Haredim avoid
certain vegetables, such as broccoli, because they may be infested and
exceedingly hard to clean. Responding to this issue, some companies now
sell thoroughly washed and inspected produce for those who do not wish
to do it themselves, even going to the trouble of filtering the wash
water to ensure that it carries no microscopic creatures (see discussion
of such animals in tap water, above).
There are actually some restrictions on consumption of produce. The
fruit of a tree for the first three years cannot be consumed (the law of
orlah). For crops grown in the Holy Land, tithes must be taken and
allocated according to the precepts of the Bible, otherwise the entire
crop is not considered Kosher.
Eggs
Eggs from kosher birds are kosher; they are also considered pareve
(neutral, neither milk nor meat). Traditionally, eggs are examined in a
glass cup to ascertain that they contain no blood. Eggs containing blood
in the white may be used according to Sephardi halakha if the blood can
be removed, but the egg must be discarded if any blood is found on the
yolk. Ashkenazim generally do not distinguish between blood in the white
or on the yolk. Partially-formed eggs found inside slaughtered birds may
be eaten, but they must undergo the same process of blood removal as the
animal, and these eggs are considered to be fleishig (status of meat) in
Ashkenazi Judaism.
Canned and frozen foods
Most canned and frozen foods are usually permissible since manufacturers
add only water and spices during the packaging process. Sometimes,
however, fruits or vegetables are prepared with milk products or with
non-kosher ingredients such as non-kosher meat broth. Orthodox Judaism
thus holds that canned and frozen goods should generally not be consumed
unless there is a hechsher (mark of rabbinical certification of kashrut)
on the product. Conservative Judaism often is more lenient, and holds
that a careful reading of the ingredients is sufficient.
Wine and grape products
Traditionally, all wheat, all oil, and all products made from grape
juice, including wine, are only considered kosher if produced by Jews.
Those that are produced by non-Jews were considered trief. However, over
time the prohibition against the consumption of wheat and oil products
produced by non-Jews was dropped.
Nonetheless, the prohibition against gentile made grape products
continued. This is derived from the religious use of wine by non-Jews
(as well as Jews). In the past, an entire vineyard, or an entire
pressing of the grapes would be dedicated to a god other than that of
the Jews. If some of the product would find its way to be consumed by
Jews, or even used for Kiddush, that would constitute inadvertant
idolatry, or sacrilege. Such wine is known as Yayin Nesech, and may not
be consumed, even if the wine was known not to have been used in a
religious ceremony. Though modern wine is rarely used in a religious
context, all wine from non-Jewish sources is still considered not
Kosher.
One area of leniency is with pasteurized (or cooked) wine (mevushal in
Hebrew), which is viewed as less suitable for religious practices, and
is therefore subject to fewer prohibitions than un-cooked non-Jewish
wine, primarily regarding the way it may be handled. However, even
mevushal wine is forbidden without proper supervision.
As a consequence, many candies, drinks, and other foods are often not
available in grape flavor. Many blends of fruit juices are also flavored
with white grape juice, and are thus viewed as grape products.
Conservative Judaism views on wine
Within Conservative Judaism, the law has changed on this issue. Its
Committee on Jewish Law and Standards approved a responsum ("legal
ruling") by Rabbi Israel Silverman on this subject. He claimed that most
classical Jewish authorities agree that Christians are not considered
idolators, and that their products cannot be considered forbidden in
this regard. He also noted that most most wine-making in the United
States is fully automated. Based on 15th-19th century precedents in the
responsa literature, he concluded that wines manufactured by this
automated process may not be classified as wine "manufactured by
gentiles", and thus are not prohibited by Jewish law. A later responum
on this subject was written by Rabbi Elliot N. Dorff. He noted that not
all wines are made by automated processes, and thus the reasoning behind
Silverman's responsum was not conclusively reliable in all cases.
However, he then explored rabbinic thought on Jewish views of
non-Christians, claiming that many of the most traditionalist Orthodox
rabbis refused to consign Christians to the status of idolator. Dorff
then explored the traditional halakhic argument that avoiding such wine
would prevent intermarriage. Dorff asserted, however, that those who
were strict about the laws of kashrut were not likely to intermarry, and
those that did not follow the laws would not care if a wine has a
heksher or not. He then discussed the fact that many foods once
considered forbidden if produced by gentiles (wheat and oil products)
were eventually declared kosher, and proceeded to extended this
leniency, in such situations where applicable, to grape-products,
including wines
Aluminum foil
Questions of Kashrut also crop up regarding items which are not
themselves consumed. For instance, production of aluminum foil requires
that the foil be squeezed between two rollers at tremendous pressure, to
ensure constancy of thickness. Since the foil would retain toxic residue
if it were lubricated with petroleum-based lubricants during this
process, lubricants derived from animals or plants must be used. In the
past, tallow or lard were often used, which would leave a residue on the
foil rendering it non-kosher. However today, use of these products is
economically unfavorable compared to use of vegetable-derived
lubricants.
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